Figure of Speech (문채 文彩)  

문채란 보통 하고자 하는 말을 참신하고 효과적으로 하기 위해 일부러 통상적인 어법에서 벗어나게 사용하는 장식적인 말이나 표현을 일컫는다. 사조(詞藻)나 사자(詞姿)라는 말도 있으나 문채라는 말이 가장 일반적으로 사용되고 있으며, 이것이 원의에 가장 가깝다. 고대 수사학(修辭學 rhetoric)에서는 보통 '말의 문채'(figures of speech)와 '생각의 문채'(figures of thought)를 구별하고 있었는데 그 차이가 무엇인지에 대해서는 뚜렷이 의견이 일치되어 있지 않았다. 다만 Quintilian이 가장 쉽고 분명한 구별기준을 제시해준 바 있는데, 그에 의하면 '말의 문채'는 뜻을 바꾸지 않고도 특정한 효과를 내는 말의 장식을 말하고, '생각의 문채'는 뜻 자체를 바꾸는 수법을 말한다. 따라서 '말의 문채'는 문법적이거나 수사적인 것이라고 할 수 있고 (가령 aphaeresis, antithesis, anaphora 및 유절병렬(類節竝劣 isocolon), '생각의 문채'는 본래의 뜻과는 다른 뜻으로 사용된 말이나 표현들이라고 할 수 있다 (가령 metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, irony).

'말의 문채'가 갖는 기능은 여러 가지다. 그것은 말의 뜻을 분명히 해주기도 하고, 말에 강력한 힘을 부여해 주기도 하며, 무생물을 살아 있는 것처럼 만들어 주기도 하고, 어떤 것들을 서로 연관시켜 주기도 하고, 웃음을 자아내기도 한다. 그런데 그보다 중요한 것은 그것이 갖는 심미적인 기능이다.  Aristotle은 특히 이 심미적인 기능에 주목을 하였으며 Longinus도 문채가 수사학의 영역과 시학의 영역에서 갖는 기능을 서로 구별해서 생각했다.

그러나 중세에는 대체로 문채의 장식적 기능, 다시 말해, 말의 '빛깔'(colour)의 문제에 관심이 강했다. 그에 비해 르네상스 시대에는 판에 박힌 문채의 사용은 비교적 기피되었으나 이 때도 문채가 역시 장식이라는 생각이 지배적이었고, 이러한 생각은 19세기까지도 계속되었다. A. H. Housman도, 모든 은유와 직유는 장식적이며 '시에 있어서 비본질적인 것'이라고 말한 바 있다.

오늘날에 이르러서는 다시 Aristotle의 이론과 르네상스 시대의 실천을 따르는, 문채의 미적 개념으로 다시 돌아간 듯하다. 문채는 장식일 수 있지만 그 이상의 어떤 것이라는 생각이 지배적이 된 것이다. 문채는 산문 담화를 통해 명료화(clarification)와 예증(illustration)의 기능을 담당하기도 하며, 여러 가지 연상들을 결합하여 이미지 형성을 자극할 뿐 아니라 우리의 상상력을 도와 그 연상들을 정연한 심미적 형식으로 배열하는 역할을 한다. 그것은 어떤 생각을, 한 체험으로부터 다른 체험으로 용이하게 전이 시켜줄 뿐 아니라, 정연하고 조화로운 형식을 갖춘 구체적이고 이해 가능한 체험으로 옮겨주기도 한다. 가령 Milton이 chaos를 'the womb of Nature and perhaps her grave'라고 했을 때처럼 문채는 명료화와 예증 이상의 일을 하고 있는 것이다. 문채는 묘사할 수 없는 어떤 것을 구체적인 것으로 이해할 수 있게 해주며 서로 달라 보이는 것들 사이에도 같은 점이 있다는 것을 인지하게 해주어 심미적인 틀 안에서 생각을 확대 시켜준다고 하겠다. <宋 武>

Metaphor (은유) :

비유의 일종으로 비교형식에 의하지 않고 직접 'A is B' 처럼 표현함으로써 B가 나타내는 의미내용을 A에 부가하는 표현양식을 말한다. 은유는 '어떤 사물에다 다른 것에 속하는 이름을 갖다 붙이는 것'으로 이러한 '옮겨놓는 과정, 즉 특수에서 보편, 보편에서 특수, 특수에서 특수 또는 유추를 통한 바뀜을 통해서 생기게 된다. 그리고 은유는 보통 표현하고자 하는 대상을 보다 선명하게 해주고 의미를 명확하게 해주며 또 주어진 대상에 대해 선명한 시각적 인상을 남겨주는 기능을 한다. 즉, 기능적인 면에서 볼 때 은유는 알려진 사실을 이용하여 알지 못하거나 분명치 못한 사실을 명확히 해 주는 중요한 일을 하는 것이다.


       She is my sunshine. (= She is my love.)
       Highways are snakes. (= Highways are long and thin. Highways are curvey.)
       Man is wolf. (= Man is fierce. Man is a predator.)



Simile (직유) :

어떤 서술을 할 때, 'as', 'like' 등의 비교, 대비를 명시적으로 표현하는 어구의 도움을 받아, 다른 구체적이고 지각되기 쉬운 대상을 끄집어내어 양자의 유사성 또는 비유사성을 전제로 하여, 보다 적확하고 풍부한 묘사를 하거나, 새로운 인식방법을 제시하거나, 강조, 과장 등의 표현을 하는 것을 말한다.


       Highways are like snakes. (= Highways are curvey.)



Metonymy (환유) :

어떤 것을 나타내기 위해 그것의 속성 또는 거기에서 연상되는 다른 것의 이름을 말하는 수사법


     1) 표지물에 의하여 그것의 본체를 나타낸다.

      from the cradle to the grave (= from childhood to death),
      gray hairs (= old age or old men)


     2) 도구로써 일 또는 일하는 사람을 나타내다.

      The pen is mightier than the sword.
       (=Those who use the pen have more influence than those who use the sword.)
      He was popular with petticoats. (= He was popular with women.)


     3) 용기(容器)로 그 내용물을 나타낸다.

       The kettle (= water in the kettle) boils.
       Heaven (= God)



Synecdoche (제유) :

metonymy (환유)의 일종으로, 부분을 가지고 전체를 나타내거나 또 전체를 가지고 부분을 나타내는 수사법


     1) 부분 또는 특수한 것을 가리키는 어구에 의해 전체 또는 일반적인 것을 나타낸다.

       He managed to earn his bread (= the necessaries of life).
       blade (= sword),
       hand (= workman),
       roof (= house),
       waves (= sea)


     2) 전체로서 부분을 나타낸다.

       He is a poor creature (man).
       vessel (= ship), our daily bread (= food, gold (= wealth)

Source : 영어학 사전 : 신아사

  What is a Figure of Speech?  

Apostrophe = [돈호법] speaking to an inanimate object or a person who is absent

          Example:  Oh, Rain, how long will you fall upon me?

Hyperbole = [과장법] exaggeration to make an emotional effect

          Example:  It'll take me a million years to fix this problem.

Metaphor = [은유법] one thing used to represent another (usually not related)

          Example:  I am an island. [meaning:  I am an independent man].

Personification = [의인법] an inanimate object or animal is given human qualities

          Example:  The night embraced me and the moon smiled down upon me.

Metonymy = [환유법] one thing used to represent another (usually related)

          Example:  Seoul petitioned Washington for a repeal on the steel tariff.

Synecdoche = [제유법] part represents the whole

          Example:  God bless the hands which prepared this food.

Oxymoron = [모순 어법] two contradictory words used together

          Example:  Childhood is so bittersweet. 

 

Kinds of Metaphor and Metonymy

   What is a Metaphor?  

A metaphor (은유) is one thing representing another thing. 

For example, in Korea, a common metaphor is:

Women are foxes. and
Men are wolves.        

Women and foxes have something in common.  In linguistics, we call this the "common ground".  They are both very clever, and sometimes cunning.  Men and wolves have a common ground.  They are both ravenous, aggressive creatures.
 

But, this particular kind of metaphor, is a nominative metaphor (i.e., noun metaphor).  Believe it or not, virtually every part of speech can function as a metaphor.  Let me give some examples.
 

The Korean expression:  "I ate my mind to..."  means "I made up my mind to..."

Both the Korean word "ate" and the English words "made up" are metaphors because when taken literally, it would mean that one's mind is food (in the Korean case) or that one's mind is a composition (in the English case).  The metaphor is not explicit/direct.  That's why I call them "indirect metaphors."

Caution!  Korean metaphors and English metaphors are seldom the same!  Be careful!

What is Metonymy?
 

A metonymy is similar to a metaphor, but different in function.  The function of a metaphor is understanding one thing via another thing.  But, the function of a metonymy is one thing used to refer to another thing, (not for understanding, just for reference)
 

Examples


  Part for whole:
     There are eight mouths to feed in my family.  [mouth = person]

  Producer for product:
     Our company just bought a new Xerox machine.  [Xerox machine = copy machine]

  Object used for user:
     The crown ordered all soldiers to arms.  [crown = king]

  Controller for controlled:
     Usama bin Laden attacked the World Trade Center in New York.  [Leader = AlQaida forces]

  Institution for person(s) in charge:
     The Pentagon announced it's new policy yesterday.  [pentagon = persons in charge]

  Place for the Institution:
     Washington placed a tariff on steel.  [Washington = U.S. government]

  Place for the Event:
     Remember the Alamo!  [Alamo = the battle at Alamo]
 

 

Common Metaphors List
 

Source : http://efl.htmlplanet.com/metaphors.htm

Figures of speech 

Poets often deviate from the denotative meanings of words to create fresher ideas and images. Such deviations from the literal meanings are called figures of speech or figurative language. If you giddily whisper to your classmate that the introduction to literature class is so wonderful and exciting that the class sessions seem to only last a minute, you are using a figure of speech. If you say that our textbook is your best friend, you are using a figure of speech. There are many different kinds of figures of speech, such as metaphors, similes, personification, hyperbole, understatement, paradox, and pun. It's important that you understand several kinds of figures of speech.  

A simile is a comparison between two dissimilar objects using a word like as or like to connect them. For example, if you say, "my boyfriend is like a watermelon in the summer,"¨ you are creating a simile that compares your boyfriend with a watermelon. If on the other hand you are mad at your boyfriend and say, "he's like a typhoon in the house," you're comparing your boyfriend with a typhoon.  

A metaphor is similar to a simile, except that a metaphor compares two dissimilar objects without using a word like as or like. If you write, "my boyfriend is an angel" or "my motorcycle is a bomb on wheels," you are creating metaphors.  

If you present an inanimate object, animal, or abstraction with human qualities and characteristics, as though it were a person, you are using personification. If you tell yourself that you have to put your new pencil back in the pencil box because it's lonely and wants to go home, you are personifying your pencil. If you say that you have to talk sweetly to your computer because it is temperamental, you are personifying your pencil.

Figures of Speech (2): verbal Irony  

Irony involves a contradiction.  "In general, irony is the perception of a clash between appearance and reality, between seems and is, or between ought and is" (Harper Handbook).  
 

Verbal irony --"Saying something contrary to what it means" (Harper Handbook).   In daily language, being ironic means that you say something but mean the opposite to what you say.  "Oh, how lucky we are to have SO MANY online materials offered by the Introduction to Literature class!" you said, and you might mean it, or you might be just ironic.  If you are ironic, there is a contradiction between your literal meaning and your actual meaning--and this is what we call verbal (rhetoric) irony.   When the narrator in Shirley Jackson's "The Lottery" says, "Although the villagers had forgotten the ritual and lost the original black box, they still remembered to use stones," the tone is ironic because the villagers seem civilized, but they are actually barbaric.  
  

Besides verbal irony, we have two other kinds of irony: dramatic irony and situational irony. 

"Dramatic irony" -- "saying or doing something while unaware of its ironic contrast with the whole truth.  Dramatic irony, named for its frequency in Drama, is a verbal irony with the speaker's awareness erased" -- so that the irony is on the speaker him/herself, but not what s/he talks about.  
There are a lot of examples in Dramatic Monologues.  For instance, when the duke in "My Last Duchess" says of the late duchess, "There she is, as if alive," the irony is on him because the duchess IS dead (though seems alive).  Here the irony is not the duke's; it is on him because he thought he posesses her, though he cannot --  alive or dead.  
  
"Situational irony" -- "events turning to the opposite of what is expected or what should be.   The ironic situation --the "ought" upended by the is -- is integral to dramatic irony" (Harper Handbook).  In Alanis Morissete's "Ironic," we can see a lot of situational ironies -- or ironies of fate. 

Hyperbole (sometimes called overstatement) occurs when you exaggerate a point that you are trying to make. If you say that the lights in our classroom are too bright because they are brighter than ten thousand suns, you are using an example of hyperbole. Or if you say that you're so hungry you could eat a million cookies and six gallon of ice cream, you're using hyperbole.  

Others:      

Understatement is related to hyperbole in that understatement is the opposite of hyperbole: understatement implies more than is actually stated. Let's say on the exam over short stories, you receive a grade of 100 when the class average is 71. If one of your classmates ask you how you did on the test and you reply, "I did okay," that is understatement.  

A sentence that contains a paradox seems initially to have contradictory elements in it but after some reflection those elements later make sense. To say, for example, that morning is the darkest time for me is paradoxical since mornings are bright and full of light but they seem mentally "dark" to me because I'm a night-person.  

A pun is a play on words that occurs when one word is used that reminds you of another word or words. You can, for example, use a word that looks like or sounds like another word. For example, if my dad says, "he is the son and all the world to me," there is a pun on the words son and sun. 

Source : http://www.eng.fju.edu.tw/English_Literature/terms/denotation.htm

  Figure of Speech  

Figure of speech, intentional departure from straight-forward, literal use of language for the purpose of clarity, emphasis, or freshness of expression. See separate articles on antithesis; apostrophe; conceit; hyperbole; irony; litotes; metaphor; metonymy; paradox; personification; simile; and synecdoche.

Source : http://www.factmonster.com/ce6/ent/A0818666.html

  Figure of Speech  

A Figure of Speech is where a word or words are used to create an effect, but where they do not have their original or literal meaning.

If someone says that they are 'starving', they do not mean that they are in fact dying of hunger, but that they are very hungry. This is a simple example of a figure of speech, where the word is used to heighten or increase the state that they are describing. A metaphor or a simile are two of the most common forms used.

See also:

Allegory :  An allegory is a narrative where similarities between the narrative are used symbolically to suggest something else; a journey could be used allegorically to suggest a person's journey through life, etc.



Cliche : A cliche is a Phrase that is used excessively and has become a bit meaningless and even irritating.

CLICHE EXAMPLES:

• Always look on the bright sight of life
• To be or not to be
• Live and learn
• Live and let live
• C'est la vie
• Que sera, sera
• What goes around comes around
• Don't worry, be happy !
  
  

Hyperbole : Hyperbole is overstatement or exaggerated language that distorts facts by making them much bigger than they are if looked at objectively. The media use it a lot to make stories seem more important or interesting than they really are (an apparently unfair boxing decision was described as the 'crime of the century' by one newspaper which seems excessive when compared to murder). It may be used to entertain or more seriously.

Irony : Irony is common in English, especially in humour. When the speaker or writer says one thing but wants you to understand something different, they are being ironic.

Sometimes the implied meaning is the opposite of the words being used, or the person could be trying to be rude, even though the words used are seemingly polite etc.

EXAMPLE OF IRONY:
Your friend turns up in ripped jeans. With a smirk, you say, "I see you have put on your best clothes!"



Jargon : Jargon is the language used by people who work in a particular area or who have a common interest; layers computer programmers, criminals etc. All have specialised terms and expressions that they use, many of which may not be comprehensible to the outsider. They may also use familiar words with different meanings as well as abbreviations, acronyms etc.



Litotes : (곡언법 曲言法) : very good 대신에 not bad라고 하는 따위) Litotes is a kind of understatement, where the speaker or writer uses a negative of a word ironically, to mean the opposite.

EG: She's not the friendliest person I know. (= she's an unfriendly person)



Rhetorical Question : A rhetorical question is one that requires no answer because it is too obvious to be worth saying.
 


Sarcasm : (풍자諷刺) Sarcasm is a form of irony that is widely used in English especially when people are being humorous. Generally the sarcastic speaker or writer means the exact opposite of the word they use, often intending to be rude or to laugh at the person the words are addressed to.
 


Slang : Slang is language at its most informal, using expressions that many would consider to be grammatically imperfect and sometimes rude. It is often used within small social groups where it can help draw and keep the group together. It changes very quickly in English.

Tautology : (同語反復) Tautology is where two near-synonyms are placed consecutively or very close together for effect.

TAUTOLOGY EXAMPLES:

• free gift
• in this day and age
• new innovation
• lonely isolation  
  

Understatement : The opposite of hyperbole, understatement is used to make something appear smaller or less important than it really is. It can be used to entertain or to reduce the importance of the truth.

Source : http://www.usingenglish.com/glossary/figure-of-speech.html

  Figure of speech  

Alliteration: spontaneous or sought repetition of the same letters

Assonance: form of defective rhyme that is had when the terminal words of two or more verses restrain the same vowels to start from the accented one

Anomatopoeia: repetition vowel of sound different with end consonant

Consonance: union of two or more sounds in perfect harmony

Rhyme: Identity of phonetic termination, beginning from the vowel keynote, of words set to brief distance in which it is absolute identity of sound

Internal rhime: two riming words appearing within the same line.

Rhythm: is the beat created by the arrangement of stressed and unstressed syllables, whose combination particular gives sense of movement

Metaphor: Substitution of a term proper with a figured, following a symbolic transposition of images

Epicit: speak about an hero with physical strenght courage,leadership who nation rapresents race or and performs superhuman deeds

Tales in verse: is a narrative in verse very popular during the Renaissance

Romance: was a tale in verse dealing with chivalry and love

Ode: a rather long poem, elevated in tane and elaborated in style. It usually begins with an invocation and contains archaisms.

Sonnet: a poem of fixed form, in fourteen lines. It can be divided into an octave sestet and a sestet.

Source : http://www.skuola.net/inglese/figures_speech.asp

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